Khan MA, Hashim MJ, Mustafa H, Baniyas MY, Al Suwaidi SKBM, AlKatheeri R, Alblooshi FMK, Almatrooshi MEAH, Alzaabi MEH, Al Darmaki RS, et al. Global epidemiology of ischemic heart disease: results from the global burden of Disease Study. Cureus. 2020;12:e9349.
Lababidi H, Salerno PR, Wass SY, Hasani NS, Bourges-Sevenier B, Al-Kindi S. The global burden of premature cardiovascular disease, 1990–2019. Int J Cardiol Cardiovasc Risk Prev. 2023;19:200212.
Libby P. The changing nature of atherosclerosis: what we thought we knew, what we think we know, and what we have to learn. Eur Heart J. 2021;42:4781–2.
López-Melgar B, Fernández-Friera L, Oliva B, García-Ruiz JM, Sánchez-Cabo F, Bueno H, Mendiguren JM, Lara-Pezzi E, Andrés V, Ibáñez B, et al. Short-term progression of multiterritorial subclinical atherosclerosis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020;75:1617–27.
Fernández-Friera L, Fuster V, López-Melgar B, Oliva B, Garcia-Ruiz JM, Mendiguren J, Bueno H, Pocock S, Ibáñez B, Fernández-Ortiz A, et al. Normal LDL-cholesterol levels are associated with subclinical atherosclerosis in the absence of risk factors. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017;70:2979–91.
Ference BA, Ginsberg HN, Graham I, Ray KK, Packard CJ, Bruckert E, Hegele RA, Krauss RM, Raal FJ, Schunkert H, et al. Low-density lipoproteins cause atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. 1. Evidence from genetic, epidemiologic, and clinical studies. A consensus statement from the European Atherosclerosis Society Consensus Panel. Eur Heart J. 2017;38:2459–72.
Borén J, Chapman MJ, Krauss RM, Packard CJ, Bentzon JF, Binder CJ, Daemen MJ, Demer LL, Hegele RA, Nicholls SJ, et al. Low-density lipoproteins cause atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: pathophysiological, genetic, and therapeutic insights: a consensus statement from the European Atherosclerosis Society Consensus Panel. Eur Heart J. 2020;41:2313–30.
2019 ESC/EAS guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias. : lipid modification to reduce cardiovascular risk. The Task Force for the management of dyslipidaemias of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and European Atherosclerosis Society (EAS). Eur Heart J. 2020; 41;111 – 88.
Cholesterol Treatment Trialists’ (CTT) Collaborators. Efficacy and safety of cholesterol-lowering treatment: prospective meta-analysis of data from 90 056 participants in 14 randomized trials of statins. Lancet. 2005;366:1267–78.
Silverman MG, Ference BA, Im K, Wiviott SD, Giugliano RP, Grundy SM, Braunwald E, Sabatine MS. Association between lowering LDL-C and cardiovascular risk reduction among different therapeutic interventions. A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2016;316:1289–97.
Wang L, Feng L, Prabahar K, Hernández-Wolters B, Wang Z. The effect of phytosterol supplementation on lipid profile: a critical umbrella review of interventional meta-analyses. Phytother Res. 2024;38:507–19.
Kronenberg F, Mora S, Stroes ESG, Ference BA, Arsenault BJ, Berglund L, Dweck MR, Koschinsky M, Lambert G, Mach F, et al. Lipoprotein (a) in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and aortic stenosis: a European atherosclerosis society consensus statement. Eur Heart J. 2022;43:3925–46.
Law HG, Meyers FJ, Berglund L, Enkhmaa B. Lipoprotein (a) and diet ˗ a challenge for a role of saturated fat in cardiovascular disease risk reduction? Am J Clin Nutr. 2023;118:23–6.
Ruuth M, Nguyen SD, Vihervaara T, Hilvo M, Laajala TD, Kondadi PK, Gisterå A, Lähteenmäki H, Kittilä T, Huusko J, et al. Susceptibility of low-density lipoprotein particles to aggregate depends on particle lipidome, is modifiable, and associates with future cardiovascular deaths. Eur Heart J. 2018;39:2562–73.
Lin X, Racette SB, Ma L, Wallendorf M, Dávila-Román VG, Ostlund RE Jr. Endogenous cholesterol excretion is negatively associated with carotid intima-media thickness in humans. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2017;37:2364–9.
Sehayek E, Hazen SL. Cholesterol absorption from the intestine is a major determinant of reverse cholesterol transport from peripheral tissue macrophages. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2008;28:1296–7.
Davidson MH, Voogt J, Luchoomun J, Decaris J, Killion S, Boban D, Glass A, Mohammad H, Lu Y, Villegas D, et al. Inhibition of intestinal cholesterol absorption with ezetimibe increases components of reverse cholesterol transport in humans. Atherosclerosis. 2013;230:322–9.
Simonen P, Öörni K, Sinisalo J, Strandberg TE, Wester I, Gylling H. High cholesterol absorption: a risk factor of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases? Atherosclerosis. 2023;376:53–62.
Maki KC, Dicklin MR, Kirkpatrick CF. Saturated fats and cardiovascular health: current evidence and controversies. J Clin Lipidol. 2021;15:765–72.
Sacks FM, Lichtenstein AH, Wu JHY, Appel LJ, Creager MA, Kris-Etherton PM, Miller M, Rimm EB, Rudel LL, Robinson JG, et al. Dietary fats and cardiovascular disease: a presidential advisory from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2017;136(3):e1–23.
Sellem L, Eichelmann F, Jackson KG, Wittenbecher C, Schulze MB, Lovegrove JA. Replacement of dietary saturated with unsaturated fatty acids is associated with beneficial effects on lipidome metabolites: a secondary analysis of a randomized trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2023;117:1248–61.
Grundy SM. Does dietary cholesterol matter? Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2016;18:68.
Vincent MJ, Allen B, Palacios OM, Haber LT, Maki KC. Meta-regression analysis of the effects of dietary cholesterol intake on LDL and HDL cholesterol. Am J Clin Nutr. 2019;109:7–16.
Carson JAS, Lichtenstein AH, Anderson CAM, Appel LJ, Kris-Etherton PM, Meyer KA, Petersen K, Polonsky T, Van Horn L, on behalf of the American Heart Association Nutrition Committee of the Council on. Lifestyle and Cardiometabolic Health; Council on Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis and Vascular Biology; Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing; Council on Clinical Cardiology; Council on Peripheral Vascular Disease; and Stroke Council. Dietary cholesterol and cardiovascular risk. A Science Advisory from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2020;141:e39-e53.
Reiners S, Hebestreit S, Wedekind L, Kiehntopf M, Klink A, Rummler S, Glei M, Lorkowski S, Schlörmann W, Dawczynski C. Effect of a regular consumption of traditional and roasted oat and barley flakes on blood lipids and glucose metabolism-A randomized crossover trial. Front Nutr. 2023;10:1095245.
Gylling H, Plat J, Turley S, Ginsberg HN, Ellegård L, Jessup W, Jones PJ, Lütjohann D, Maerz W, Masana L, et al. For the European Atherosclerosis Society Consensus Panel on Phytosterols. Plant sterols and plant stanols in the management of dyslipidaemia and prevention of cardiovascular disease. Atherosclerosis. 2014;232:346–60.
Lin X, Racette SB, Lefevre M, Spearie CA, Most M, Ma L, Ostlund RE Jr. The effects of phytosterols present in natural food matrices on cholesterol metabolism and LDL-cholesterol: a controlled feeding trial. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2010;64:1481–7.
Nissinen MJ, Vuoristo M, Gylling H, Miettinen TA. Respective hydrolysis and esterification of esterified and free plant stanols occur rapidly in human intestine after their duodenal infusion in triacyl- or diacylglycerol. Lipids. 2007;42:603–12.
Gylling H, Öörni K, Nylund L, Wester I, Simonen P. The profile of cholesterol metabolism does not interfere with the cholesterol-lowering efficacy of phytostanol esters. Clin Nutr. 2024;43:587–92.
Musa-Veloso K, Poon TH, Elliot JA, Chung C. A comparison of the LDL-cholesterol lowering efficacy of plant stanols and plant sterols over a continuous dose range: results of a meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fat Acids. 2011;85:9–28.
Gylling H, Strandberg TE, Kovanen PT, Simonen P. Lowering low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration with plant stanol esters to reduce the risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease events at a population level: a critical discussion. Nutrients. 2020;12:2346.
Simonen P, Stenman UH, Gylling H. Serum proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 concentration is not increased by plant stanol ester consumption in normo- to moderately hypercholesterolaemic non-obese subjects. The BLOOD FLOW intervention study. Clin Sci. 2015;129:439–46.
Simonen P, Arte E, Gylling H. Obesity does not interfere with the cholesterol-lowering effect of plant stanol ester consumption (as part of a heart-healthy diet). J Cardiovasc Dev Dis. 2021;8:36.
Tovar J, Johansson M, Björck I. A multifunctional diet improves cardiometabolic-related biomarkers independently of weight changes: an 8-week randomized controlled intervention in healthy overweight and obese subjects. Eur J Nutr. 2016;55:2295–306.
Plat J, Mensink RP. Effects of plant stanol esters on LDL receptor protein expression and on LDL receptor and HMG-CoA reductase mRNA expression in mononuclear blood cells of healthy men and women. FASEB J. 2002;16:258–60.
Estruch R, Martínez-González MA, Corella D, Salas-Salvadó J, Ruiz-Gutiérrez V, Covas MI, Fiol M, Gómez-Gracia E, López-Sabater MC, Vinyoles E, et al. For the PREDIMED Study investigators. Effects of a Mediterranean-style diet on cardiovascular risk factors: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2006;145:1–11.
Estruch R, Ros E, Salas-Salvadó J, Covas MI, Corella D, Arós F, Gómez-Gracia E, Ruiz-Gutiérrez V, Fiol M, Lapetra J, et al. For the PREDIMED Study investigators. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with a Mediterranean Diet supplemented with extra-virgin olive oil or nuts. N Engl J Med. 2018;378:e34.
Athyros VG, Kakafika AI, Papageorgiou AA, Tziomalos K, Peletidou A, Vosikis C, Karagiannis A, Mikhailidis DP. Effect of a plant stanol ester-containing spread, placebo spread, or Mediterranean diet on estimated cardiovascular risk and lipid, inflammatory and haemostatic factors. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2011;21:213–21.
Trichopoulou A, Costacou T, Bamia C, Trichopoulos D. Adherence to a Mediterranean diet and survival in a Greek population. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:2599–608.
Keys A, Anderson JT, Grande F. Serum cholesterol response to changes in the diet: IV. Particular saturated fatty acids in the diet. Metabolism. 1965;14:776–87.
Miettinen TA, Puska P, Gylling H, Vanhanen H, Vartiainen E. Reduction of serum cholesterol with sitostanol-ester margarine in a mildly hypercholesterolemic population. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:1308–12.
Vartiainen E, Laatikainen T, Peltonen M, Puska P. Predicting coronary heart disease and stroke. FINRISK Calculator Global Heart. 2016;11:213–6.
Sundfør TM, Svendsen M, Heggen E, Dushanov S, Klemsdal TO, Tonstad S. BMI modifies the effect of dietary fat on atherogenic lipids: a randomized clinical trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2019;110:832–41.
Maki KC. The fat of the matter: lipoprotein effects of dietary fatty acids vary by body weight status. Am J Clin Nutr. 2019;110:795–6.
Hallikainen MA, Uusitupa MI. Effects of 2 low-fat stanol ester-containing margarines on serum cholesterol concentrations as part of a low-fat diet in hypercholesterolemic subjects. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;69:403–10.
Lin X, Racette SB, Lefevre M, Ma L, Spearie CA, Steger-May K, Ostlund RE Jr. Combined effects of ezetimibe and phytosterols on cholesterol metabolism. A randomized, controlled feeding study in humans. Circulation. 2011;124:596–601.
Heffron SP, Ruuth MK, Xia Y, Hernandez G, Äikäs L, Rodriguez C, Öörni K, Berger JS. Low-density lipoprotein aggregation predicts adverse cardiovascular events in peripheral artery disease. Atherosclerosis. 2021;316:53–7.
Manninen S, Lankinen M, Erkkilä A, Nguyen SD, Ruuth M, de Mello V, Öörni K, Schwab U. The effect of intakes of fish and Camelina sativa oil on atherogenic and anti-atherogenic functions of LDL and HDL particles: a randomized controlled trial. Atherosclerosis. 2019;281:56–61.
Erkkilä AT, Manninen S, Fredrikson L, Bhalke M, Holopainen M, Ruuth M, Lankinen M, Käkelä R, Öörni K, Schwab US. Lipidomic changes of LDL after consumption of Camelina sativa oil, fatty fish and lean fish in subjects with impaired glucose metabolism-A randomized controlled trial. J Clin Lipidol. 2021;15:743–51.
Ruuth M, Lahelma M, Luukkonen PK, Lorey MB, Qadri S, Sädevirta S, Hyötyläinen T, Kovanen PT, Hodson L, Yki-Järvinen H, et al. Overfeeding saturated fat increases LDL (low-Density lipoprotein) aggregation susceptibility while overfeeding unsaturated fat decreases proteoglycan-binding of lipoproteins. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2021;41:2823–36.
Ruuth M, Äikäs L, Tigistu-Sahle F, Käkelä R, Lindholm H, Simonen P, Kovanen PT, Gylling H, Öörni K. Plant stanol esters reduce LDL (low-Density lipoprotein) aggregation by altering LDL surface lipids. The BLOOD FLOW randomized intervention study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2020;40:2310–21.
Gylling H, Öörni K, Simonen P, Äikäs L, Wester I. High cholesterol absorption, a potential risk factor for atherosclerosis. A possible proatherogenic mechanism in a cohort study. Atherosclerosis 379 Supplement 1 (2023 August) Abstract S132.
Bosner MS, Lange LG, Stenson WF, Ostlund RE Jr. Percent cholesterol absorption in normal women and men quantified with dual stable isotopic tracers and negative ion mass spectrometry. J Lipid Res. 1999;40:302–8.
Grundy SM. Plasma noncholesterol sterols as indicators of cholesterol absorption. J Lipid Res. 2013;54:873–5.
Add Comment