Physical exercise and loneliness
This study revealed a direct negative relationship between physical exercise and loneliness in older adults. This finding corroborates previous studies [26]. Interviews with the research subjects revealed that older adults who participate frequently in physical exercise perform well in terms of mental outlook, language expression, interpersonal communication, and enthusiasm for life and are less susceptible to negative emotions.
After retirement, older adults often face problems such as narrower social networks, poor communication channels, and weakened physical functions, which are important causes of negative emotions such as loneliness, depression, and anxiety. Physical exercise provides some resources for older adults to combat loneliness. Physiologically, exercise can enhance the flexibility of bones, muscles, and joints; enhance the functional levels of the cardiovascular, respiratory, neurological, and motor systems; contribute to the development of resistance; and enable older adults to maintain good physical function and participate in social activities, thereby alleviating the loneliness caused by social isolation [18, 27]. Psychologically, physical exercise is an effective method to regulate emotions. Older adults can relieve their loneliness and boredom and increase their confidence and optimism through physical exercise [28]. Additionally, physical exercise can provide opportunities and space for social interaction and can improve interpersonal relationships. These positive experiences and social interactions can help to alleviate the emotional and social loneliness of older adults.
The mediating role of perceived social support
This study found that perceived social support mediated the relationship between physical exercise and loneliness, supporting H1. Previous studies have shown that social support can reduce an individual’s experience of loneliness [29], and that the amount of physical exercise is positively correlated with perceived social support scores. Physical exercise can influence social support networks among older adults in the following ways: (1) physical exercise can improve and reconstruct weak connections in older adults’ social networks [30]; (2) physical exercise can increase the density of social network relationships, network interaction frequency, emotional intimacy, trust, and reciprocity among older adults [31]; and (3) physical exercise can improve older adults’ social support [32]. The stronger a social support network is, the more social resources an individual can obtain.
Previous studies generally suggest that loneliness is caused mainly by individuals’ lack of social network engagement [33]. The results of this study imply that physical exercise builds a bridge for older adults to communicate with others. Through physical exercise, older adults can obtain social and emotional resources that meet their need for social communication and reduce their experience of loneliness. In addition, previous immunological studies [34] have suggested that high levels of social engagement and living with others are associated with low levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), fibrinogen and white blood cell (WBC), whereas low levels of loneliness are associated with high levels of insulin like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), which has anti-inflammatory properties. Physical exercise has been shown to be a key driver of chronic inflammation. Even among the oldest older adults, physical exercise may improve physiological mechanisms, such as mitochondrial dysfunction, cardiovascular disease, myokine release, autophagy, oxidative damage and insulin-like growth factor signalling, thereby improving physical and psychological levels to reduce the burden of noncommunicable diseases and premature overall mortality [35, 36].
Notably, physical exercise has a greater effect on loneliness through perceived social support than through other pathways. The author of this article believes that this is related to older adults’ participation in group sports activities. Walking is the most popular sport among older adults in China, and they usually participate in this sport with their family or friends. The second most popular sport is group dancing, which is a low-barrier group activity. By participating in collective dance sessions, older adults not only enjoy a sense of unity and enthusiasm but also establish valuable social connections. The third most popular sport is Tai Chi. As a traditional Chinese sport, Tai Chi not only builds strength and flexibility but also fosters mental well-being. Studies have verified that Tai Chi can help individuals unwind and relieve negative emotions stemming from stress and maladaptation [37]. Furthermore, Tai Chi often involves a teacher‒student relationship and provides a platform for people to bond over a shared interest, enhancing social connections. In summary, older adults who participate in physical exercise with others or groups for a long period of time receive higher levels of social support than those who do not. This finding is understandable because China is a country with a collectivist culture, and group sports may provide an ideal social environment for collective-oriented individuals to satisfy their desire for collectives [38]. Thus, participating in group sports may increase the frequency of communication among older adults, which is highly valuable for alleviating the loneliness caused by social insufficiency.
The mediating role of resilience
In support of H2, we found that resilience mediates the relationship between physical exercise and loneliness. According to the resilience framework proposed by Kumpfer, resilience stems from a combination of internal factors and processes. The internal factors include (1) spiritual or motivational characteristics; (2) cognitive competencies; (3) behavioural/social competencies; (4) emotional stability and emotional management; and (5) physical wellbeing and physical competencies. Previous studies have shown that physical exercise can modulate attention orientation, improve cognitive function, enhance emotional regulation and promote physical health, which are closely related to the formation of resilience internal factors in older adults [39,40,41,42]. In addition, Kumpfer noted that family, cultural, community, school and peer resources are protective factors for resilience, and these protective factors are often found in older adults’ physical exercise environment. For example, in China, communities are the main place for physical exercise among older adults [43], and adults usually participate in group forms of physical exercise. Their companions usually include family members, neighbours, or co-enthusiasts. These similar environmental factors suggest the potential role of physical exercise in the development of resilience in older adults.
Research has shown that resilience plays a protective role in negative mood and cognitive dissonance regardless of the level of adversity [44]. Loneliness is also a subjective negative experience or irrational cognitive outcome. As a positive personality trait and psychological ability, resilience can help older adults maintain a healthy mental state under environmental stress and setbacks, cope with various changes in life and enhance their perseverance and self-control [45]. These positive qualities are helpful in alleviating loneliness in older adults. Both the present study and existing findings support this view [46]. In other words, older adults who improve their resilience through physical exercise exhibit enhanced self-control, perseverance and positive attitudes when facing adversity, all of which are beneficial for alleviating the negative effects of loneliness. According to the resilience framework, the ideal environment is an essential condition to promote the development of resilience. Thus, when organising and conducting physical exercise interventions for older adults, we should focus not only on the intensity and type of physical exercise but also on older adults’ connections with their families, friends and communities to develop resilience from an ecological perspective.
The serial mediating role of perceived social support and resilience
The key finding of this study is that the association between physical exercise and loneliness is partially mediated by perceived social support and resilience through a sequential pathway, supporting H3. This result supports existing research and demonstrate the value of physical exercise for improving loneliness among older adults [47, 48]. On the one hand, there is a positive correlation between physical exercise and perceived social support, and high levels of social support can alleviate loneliness in older adults [49]. These findings suggest that physical exercise is an important means for older adults to participate in social interactions and prevent social loneliness. However, physical exercise and resilience are positively correlated, and resilience is valuable for reducing negative states [50]. This may be due to some resilience traits of individual internal factors. In summary, we believe that the effect of physical exercise on loneliness in older adults involves a combination of external factors (social support) and internal factors (resilience). These factors are linked. A similar chain-mediated effect has been found in which social support can indirectly alleviate some negative emotions through resilience [51, 52]. The results of the present study partially support this view.
After individuals enter the elderly stage, they gradually detach from labour production, the social circles they have established in the past gradually decrease, and family and community become their main activity spaces. Physical exercise has become an important means of maintaining connections between older adults and society. It encourages older adults to move from solitude to public spaces such as parks, squares and activity centres. This movement provides opportunities for older adults to engage in increased interpersonal communication and interaction with their families during physical exercise or to meet like-minded fitness partners. Older adults can release interpersonal and emotional stress while engaging in physical exercise and social support, thereby alleviating loneliness. Improving mental health is a long-term process. We encourage older adults to persist in participating in physical exercise and social interactions, which will allow them to continuously benefit from physical exercise.
Limitations and future study
(1) This study cannot infer the situation of disabled older adults in this model. (2) This study is cross-sectional in nature, and it cannot infer causal relationships between variables. In the future, a tracking design could be used to validate the viewpoints of this study. (3) The respondents are concentrated in Zhejiang, China, and the research conclusions may have regional spatial deviation. Future studies could further expand the scope of the sample to improve the study conclusions. (4) Perceived social support and resilience contain multiple secondary variables, but this study cannot predict the precise effect of their dimensions on loneliness objectively. (5) This study does not consider the influence of internal sample differences on the research results. In future research, samples could be further distinguished, such as considering gender, family structure, urban–rural differences, and even educational or cultural background. (6) After the epidemic, the living habits and health cognition of older adults may change, and the potential influence on the results cannot be estimated in this study.
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