The primary aim of this study was to investigate the impact of Pilates instructors’ leadership styles on class satisfaction and psychological well-being among Pilates participants. Specifically, the study focused on how transformational, transactional, and servant leadership styles influence educational, social, environmental, and physical class satisfaction, as well as their subsequent effects on self-acceptance, personal growth and autonomy, positive interpersonal relationships, and purpose in life. The discussion is organized into several subsections to comprehensively address these aspects: the relationship between Pilates instructors’ leadership types and class satisfaction, the influence of leadership styles on psychological well-being, and the connection between class satisfaction and psychological well-being among Pilates participants.
The relationship between Pilates instructors’ leadership types and class satisfaction
Higher transactional leadership in Pilates instructors increases class satisfaction, underscoring the value of rewarding participants upon achieving goals. This relationship is supported by the studies of Isebor [38] and Lim [39], while Park and Huh [40] and Lindberg [41] demonstrate that teachers’ behaviors directly affect students’ satisfaction, and perceived teacher-student congruence positively influences students’ satisfaction. Transformational leadership plays a significant role in educational class satisfaction, with the sub-factors of charisma and individual consideration positively impacting athletes’ satisfaction, as shown in the studies by Lim [39], Kim, Sim, and Lee [42], and Gorgulu [43]. The research also found that servant leadership significantly influences participants’ physical class satisfaction, as evidenced by the studies of Azadfada, Besmi, and Doroudian [44] and Muslih, Giyoto, Makruf, and Annisyaroh [45], highlighting the importance of a leadership approach that respects and supports participants. The study revealed no significant statistical relationship between environmental class satisfaction and leadership types, contrasting with Nezhad, Sani, and Andam [46], possibly due to the focus on well-equipped private studios, which may reduce the impact of environmental factors on leadership.
These findings suggest the need for training and education of Pilates instructors in setting positive and hopeful goals and providing services tailored to participants’ individual circumstances and characteristics. The findings underscore the importance of implementing training programs to cultivate professional attitudes and mindsets among instructors toward their clients.
The relationship between Pilates instructors’ leadership types and psychological well-being
Self-acceptance, personal growth, and autonomy, sub-factors of psychological well-being among Pilates participants, were found to be significantly influenced by transformational leadership. In contrast, transactional and servant leadership did not show a significant impact. The findings suggest that when instructors display more transformational leadership, participants experience higher self-acceptance, personal growth, and autonomy. Transformational leadership is crucial in enhancing participants’ self-acceptance, personal growth, and autonomy. This leadership style focuses on recognizing and respecting individuals’ intrinsic values and potentials, helping participants embrace their identity and capabilities positively. A study examined the effects of transformational leadership on participants’ well-being and cognitive stimulation, revealing that transformational leadership decreased participants’ self-assessed cognitive stimulation and enhanced their well-being, contributing to a more positive perception of their situation and a higher valuation of their abilities and worth. Building on these findings, it is proposed that transformational leadership supports various dimensions of psychological well-being by virtue of its capacity for individual consideration and intellectual stimulation. Specifically, it is suggested that such leadership fosters self-acceptance and environmental mastery among followers by promoting a sense of autonomy and personal growth, ultimately leading to a sustainable enhancement of well-being that aligns with eudaimonia concepts [47].
Furthermore, a study in a learning program setting explored the role of peer instructors in constructing meaning, indirectly demonstrating how transformational leadership can foster individual autonomy and personal growth. The sub-factor of positive interpersonal relationships in Pilates participants’ well-being was not significantly impacted by transformational, transactional, or servant leadership styles. This could be attributed to a range of psychological and behavioral factors, as found in the health systems study [47], where individual stress responses and the quality of interpersonal relationships play a critical role. Additionally, as highlighted in the COPE HCW Trial [48], engagement levels and well-being are also influenced by various non-pandemic-related factors, including personal attitudes towards health interventions and the inherent dynamics within group settings, which can alter the effectiveness of leadership styles irrespective of external crises such as a pandemic.
The purpose in life was influenced by transactional leadership but not by transformational or servant leadership. Transactional leadership’s conditional rewards impact psychological well-being. Appropriate conditional rewards facilitate exercise participation and reduce disappointment from failure, providing positive motivation for participants through incremental goals and fair rewards. The influence of transformational, transactional, and servant leadership styles on positive interpersonal relationships among Pilates participants may be limited due to factors other than social distancing measures, such as the inherent individualism within exercise contexts. Previous studies, such as Huang [49], indicate that in fitness and recreational sports, leadership impact on interpersonal relationships can be overshadowed by personal goals and the solitary nature of the activity. This suggests that leadership styles may not be the primary driver in shaping relational dynamics in such settings.
Moreover, the distinct influence of transactional leadership on participants’ sense of purpose, as opposed to transformational or servant leadership, can be explained through the motivational framework provided by transactional leadership’s emphasis on clear rewards and recognition. This mirrors findings in educational contexts where transactional strategies significantly enhance students’ motivation by aligning rewards with performance objectives, thus supporting participants’ psychological well-being [50]. This reflects the theory that explicit incentives in transactional leadership can effectively motivate individuals towards specific achievements [51].
These insights suggest that while transactional leadership may be effective in contexts where direct rewards can be aligned with personal goals, the influence of leadership styles like transformational and servant leadership on interpersonal relationships may require a more integrative approach, especially in settings where individual pursuits predominate.
Appropriate conditional rewards can provide participants specific goals and rewards, encouraging exercise participation, reducing disappointment from failure, and offering positive motivation through achieving incremental goals. These findings indicate that the impact of leadership style on participants’ psychological well-being can vary depending on the situation. Particularly in abnormal situations like a pandemic, the influence of leadership style may differ from expectations, an essential consideration in adjusting leadership strategies.
The relationship between pilates participants’ class satisfaction and psychological well-being
Educational satisfaction among Pilates participants was found to significantly influence personal growth and autonomy, sub-factors of psychological well-being, suggesting that higher educational satisfaction correlates with higher valuations of personal growth and autonomy. In contrast, social, environmental, and physical satisfaction did not significantly impact the sub-factors of psychological well-being. The findings reveal that higher educational satisfaction among Pilates participants fosters a greater emphasis on personal growth and autonomy. The observation that educational qualifications and satisfaction significantly contribute to multiple aspects of psychological well-being, such as personal growth and autonomy, is corroborated by a range of studies. Higher levels of education are associated with better mental well-being among young adult female university students, emphasizing the long-term benefits of educational attainment on psychological health [52]. Additionally, well-designed educational programs can enhance dimensions of psychological well-being, thereby promoting life satisfaction and self-regulation [53]. These findings underscore the importance of both educational qualifications and personal satisfaction in fostering an individual’s psychological development and autonomy. Furthermore, high satisfaction in educational activities can lead to growth in psychological well-being, affecting multiple dimensions such as autonomy, environmental mastery, and personal growth [54, 55].
Conversely, social, environmental, and physical satisfaction did not significantly influence the sub-factors of psychological well-being, highlighting the specific role of educational satisfaction in influencing certain aspects of psychological well-being and providing essential insights into understanding its overall impact.
Additionally, educational and social satisfaction among Pilates participants significantly impacted positive interpersonal relationships, a sub-factor of psychological well-being. Individuals more satisfied with their education and social experiences tend to value positive interpersonal relationships more. Environmental and physical satisfaction did not influence this sub-factor. This finding aligns with research indicating that positive relationships are the most influential on job satisfaction, indirectly supporting the impact of educational and social satisfaction on positive interpersonal relationships [56]. Other research has shown that perceived social support positively impacts psychological well-being and life satisfaction, bolstering the influence of social satisfaction on positive interpersonal relationships. Social support has been identified as a critical predictor of job satisfaction, with psychological well-being mediating this process [57, 58]. Educational and social satisfaction among Pilates participants also significantly impacted the sub-factor of life purpose. Higher educational and social satisfaction levels correlate with a greater sense of purpose and direction in life. The result that educational and social satisfaction significantly impacted life purpose suggests that participants are more likely to value their life’s purpose and direction. This alignment with previous research indicates that educational satisfaction positively affects individual life quality and job satisfaction, demonstrating a positive relationship between educational satisfaction and life satisfaction and positive interpersonal relationships [59]. Furthermore, research exploring the impact of social satisfaction on life purpose and direction in older adults suggests that social satisfaction can play a crucial role in enhancing an individual’s sense of purpose and direction. Educational achievements and social support positively influence life purpose and direction, supporting the positive impact of educational and social satisfaction on life purpose among Pilates participants [58, 60].
Limitation
This study’s findings on the impact of Pilates instructors’ leadership styles on class satisfaction and psychological well-being are subject to several limitations that warrant further discussion. Firstly, the research was confined to a specific cultural context in South Korea, which may limit the generalizability of the results to other settings. Moreover, the reliance on self-reported measures could introduce response bias, a significant concern as these measures are susceptible to social desirability and recall biases. Recall bias, in particular, is well-documented in the literature. For instance, studies by Miller [61] and Van de Mortel [62] have shown how participants’ memories and subsequent reporting can be influenced by various factors, leading to potential inaccuracies in the data. Additionally, Embree and Whitehead [63] emphasized the challenges posed by response biases, including memory recall and social desirability, in self-reported drinking behavior.
One limitation of this study is the unbalanced sample in terms of sexes, with a significantly higher proportion of female participants. This imbalance could potentially affect the generalizability of the results, particularly to male participants. However, it is important to note that Pilates is predominantly practiced by women, as supported by previous studies. For instance, Segar et al. found that women are more likely to engage in Pilates and similar forms of exercise [64]. Furthermore, research by Brace-Govan indicates that women face specific barriers and motivations in physical activities, including Pilates, which may explain their higher participation rates [65]. These demographic trends can partially justify the observed sex discrepancy in our sample. Despite this justification, we acknowledge that the sex imbalance could still influence the outcomes and interpretations of our study. Future research should strive to include a more balanced sample to better understand the effects of Pilates across different sexes. Additionally, studies focusing specifically on male participants or using stratified sampling methods to ensure sex balance could provide more comprehensive insights into the influence of Pilates instructors’ leadership styles on class satisfaction and psychological well-being.
The cross-sectional design of the study further restricts the ability to establish causality. Confounding variables, such as participants’ prior experiences with Pilates, inherent personality traits, or concurrent participation in other forms of wellness activities, might have influenced the reported satisfaction and well-being, and were not controlled for in this study. This oversight could obscure the true effects of leadership styles on the outcomes measured. Additionally, focusing on urban participants may not capture the diverse experiences of individuals in rural or other differing environments, potentially overlooking how varying socio-economic and cultural backgrounds could affect class dynamics and satisfaction. Limiting the investigation to only three leadership styles may also fail to capture the full spectrum of possible influences, as other relevant styles or hybrid approaches could provide different insights into the leadership-effectiveness relationship.
Furthermore, the absence of Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) in this study is a significant limitation. CFA could have provided a more rigorous test of the measurement model, ensuring that the constructs measured align with the theoretical expectations. Future research should incorporate CFA to validate the factor structure of the instruments used, enhancing the reliability and validity of the findings.
The purpose of our study was to investigate the health and exercise attitudes of Pilates participants. To this end, we surveyed over 300 Pilates participants. The sample size was based on a convenience sample, a method widely used in the initial stages of research. This choice of sample size, as observed in studies by Lausen et al. [23] and Bernardo [24], is a common approach in Pilates research. Although our sample does not perfectly represent all Pilates participants, it was sufficient to collect preliminary data and derive statistically significant results. This method was chosen considering the limitations of our resources and time constraints.
Future research should address these limitations by expanding the cultural contexts examined, utilizing objective measures to complement self-reported data, incorporating longitudinal designs to better establish causality, and exploring a broader array of leadership behaviors to fully understand their impact on class experience in diverse Pilates settings. Moreover, research should include both urban and rural participants as well as male participants to provide a more comprehensive understanding of how different environments influence class satisfaction and well-being.
In conclusion, while this study provides valuable insights into the impact of Pilates instructors’ leadership styles on class satisfaction and psychological well-being, it also highlights the need for further research to address the identified limitations and explore additional variables and contexts that may influence these outcomes.
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